The September 18 Incident of 1931 did not just bring military occupation to Northeast China—it also sparked a wave of grassroots resistance led by ordinary people. From farmers and workers to students and teachers, men and women of all ages and backgrounds came together to defend their homes, their communities, and their way of life against Japanese aggression. This resistance, though often overlooked in broader historical narratives, was a testament to the resilience and courage of the Northeast Chinese people.

Over the following months, similar groups sprang up across the Northeast, with names like the “Northeast Volunteer Army,” the “Anti-Japanese National Salvation Army,” and the “People’s Liberation Army of Northeast China.” These armies varied in size—some had only a few dozen members, while others grew to thousands—but they all shared a common goal: to drive Japanese troops out of their homeland. The Jilin People’s Self-Defense Force, for instance, organized a network of “family units” where entire households joined the cause. In one village, the Zhang family—father, two sons, and even the 16-year-old daughter—all fought together, with the daughter using her knowledge of herbal medicine to treat the wounded.

The tactics used by these volunteer armies were tailored to the region’s terrain, which included dense forests, vast plains, and mountainous areas. They relied on guerrilla warfare, launching surprise attacks on Japanese outposts, ambushing supply convoys, and destroying railway lines to disrupt Japanese military operations. For example, in October 1931, a small group of volunteers in southern Liaoning attacked a Japanese military train, destroying weapons and supplies and freeing Chinese prisoners being transported to Japan. This daring raid, led by a former railway worker named Li Dawei, utilized his intimate knowledge of the tracks to derail the train at a remote bend. In December of the same year, volunteers in Jilin Province launched a coordinated attack on a Japanese garrison in Changchun, temporarily recapturing parts of the city before being forced to withdraw due to superior Japanese firepower. The resistance fighters strategically targeted the barracks’ ammunition depot, setting it ablaze with homemade incendiary devices crafted from kerosene and glass bottles.

What made these volunteer armies particularly remarkable was their ability to survive and operate despite severe shortages of weapons, food, and medical supplies. Many volunteers fought with outdated rifles, swords, or even farm tools, while others relied on donations from local communities for food and clothing. Local farmers often provided shelter to volunteers, hiding them from Japanese patrols and sharing their meager harvests. In the Yanji region, villagers dug a network of underground tunnels beneath their homes, creating hidden bunkers where fighters could rest and recuperate. Doctors and nurses, both trained and self-taught, set up makeshift hospitals in caves or abandoned buildings, treating wounded soldiers with limited medical equipment. Dr. Wang Meiling, a graduate of Peking Union Medical College, improvised anesthesia using traditional Chinese herbs and performed life-saving surgeries with sterilized kitchen utensils.

Students and intellectuals also played a key role in the resistance. In cities like Shenyang and Harbin, university students organized secret groups to spread anti-occupation propaganda. They distributed leaflets detailing Japanese atrocities, wrote articles for underground newspapers, and held secret meetings to plan protests and boycotts of Japanese goods. The “Snowflake Society” at Harbin Institute of Technology, for example, developed a sophisticated code system to smuggle banned literature. They printed revolutionary poems on rice paper, which could be dissolved in water and then reconstituted by sympathetic printers. Many students also left their schools to join volunteer armies, using their education to help with strategy, communication, and logistics. A group of engineering students from Shenyang Institute of Technology designed a series of improvised landmines using discarded metal pipes and black powder, significantly increasing the effectiveness of guerrilla attacks.

Women were another vital part of the resistance movement. While many women joined volunteer armies as nurses or messengers, others formed their own organizations to support the cause. In Liaoning Province, a group of women established the “Northeast Women’s Anti-Japanese Salvation Association,” which raised funds for volunteer armies, sewed clothing for soldiers, and provided care for the families of those fighting. The association’s leader, Madame Zhao, devised a unique fundraising method: she organized “silent protests” where women would gather in public squares knitting sweaters for the troops, with each stitch representing a donation. Women also played a key role in gathering intelligence, using their roles as homemakers and market vendors to collect information about Japanese troop movements and pass it on to resistance leaders. In Mukden (now Shenyang), a network of female vendors at the Nanmen Market created a complex system of hand signals and coded conversations to relay information about Japanese patrol schedules.

The resistance efforts of the Northeast Chinese people had a significant impact on the Japanese occupation. While they were not able to drive Japanese troops out of the region immediately, they forced the Kwantung Army to divert significant resources to suppressing the resistance, slowing down Japan’s expansion plans. Records from the Japanese military archives reveal that by 1933, over 30,000 troops were tied down in anti-guerrilla operations in Manchuria. They also inspired people across China to join the national resistance movement, laying the groundwork for the broader War of Resistance Against Japan that would begin in 1937. The heroic deeds of the Northeast volunteers were chronicled in a series of secretly circulated pamphlets titled “Stories of Resistance,” which became required reading for new recruits in the Chinese National Revolutionary Army.

Today, the stories of these civilian resistance fighters are an important part of the legacy of the September 18 Incident. They remind us that even in the darkest times, ordinary people have the power to stand up for what is right. They also highlight the importance of community, solidarity, and courage in the face of oppression—a message that remains relevant to people around the world today. The recently opened Manchurian Resistance Memorial in Changchun features interactive exhibits, including replicas of the guerrilla tunnels and holographic reconstructions of key battles, ensuring that these heroic stories continue to inspire future generations.